Table 2 The merits and issues of some of the state-of-the-art watermarking techniques

Prasad and Pal [29]

1 × 2

1.5

Strong tamper detection and localization ability

Low imperceptibility, Further, the pixel value diferencing technique is prone to pixel diference histogram attack

Ansari, et al. [30]

4 × 4

2

Robust against copy and paste attack, text addition, VQ attack, and cropping attack

Low imperceptibility

Nazari, et al. [31]

2 × 2

1.6

Strong ability to detect malicious manipulation in an image

Low imperceptibility

Chang, et al. [32]

4 × 4

3

Robust against various image tampering operations like erasing, burring, sharpening, contrast modifcation, and identifcation of burst bits and the VQ attack

Weak tamper detection and localization ability